The Psychopath

     'Madness without delirium', 'moral insanity' - these are just two of the terms that had been used until the late 1800s to describe the personality without a conscience, the personality with a lack of social responsiveness. The term 'psychopath' was first coined by a German clinician and since then has been used as the description of the criminal with violent, unstable behaviour.

A Psychopath? Not Really.

     The term 'sociopath', first used in the 1930s, is considered by some to be a synonym for psychopath, by others to describe an individual with behaviours which are perhaps less extreme. Today, the same definitions and uses of the terms 'psychopath' and 'psychopathy' are not accepted by all researchers. Most agree that psychopathy is a personality disorder characterized by a pattern of disregard for the feelings of others and often the rules of society.

     The psychopath has a lack of empathy and lack of remorse as well as very shallow emotions. However there is no consensus about the symptom criteria for psychopathy, and no psychiatric or psychological organization has sanctioned a diagnosis of 'psychopathy'. Many researchers do not consider the terms antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) and psychopathy as being synonymous.

     ASPD refers to broad behavioral patterns based on clinical observation, whereas psychopathy assesses character as well as behavior.

A Psychopath?

     The definition of ASPD is so broad that it is estimated that between 50-80% of male inmates qualify as meeting its criteria whereas, Hare estimates that only 11-25% of male inmates meet the criteria for psychopathy.

     To make the understanding of these two terms even more confusing, the current edition of the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), published in 2000 describes antisocial personality disorder (ASPD), which is characterized by a long-standing history of criminal and often physically aggressive behavior and refers to it as synonymous with psychopathy. Much research, however, shows that measures of psychopathy and ASPD overlap only moderately.

     The characteristics of the psychopathic personality was first described systematically by Medical College of Georgia psychiatrist Hervey M. Cleckley in 1941 who described psychopathy as consisting of a specific set of personality traits and behaviors. According to Cleckley, a psychopath was superficially charming, tending to make a good first impression on others and often striking observers as remarkably normal.

     This disarming presentation hides the reality of the psychopathic individual who is self-centered, dishonest and undependable and will, at times, engage in irresponsible behavior for no apparent reason other than the sheer fun of it.   The psychopath is devoid of guilt, empathy and love and will have only casual and callous interpersonal and romantic relationships. They may offer excuses for their reckless actions blaming others, are often impulsive and rarely learn from their mistakes or benefit from negative feedback.

Hervey M. Cleckley

     With this definition in mind, psychopaths seem overrepresented in prisons, many studies indicating that as many as 25 percent of inmates meet the diagnostic criteria for psychopathy. But other research also suggests that a sizable number of psychopaths may be walking among us in everyday life. There may actually exist 'successful psychopaths', people who attain prominent positions in society, such as politics, business and entertainment. Most psychopaths are male and the 'condition' of psychopathy is present in both Western and non-Western cultures.

     As recently as the mid-1970s, almost 80 percent of convicted felons in the United States were being diagnosed as sociopaths/psychopaths. In 1980, psychologist Robert Hare of the University of British Columbia devised the Hare Psychopathy Checklist (revised five years later and now known as the PCL-R) which has become a standard ratings tool most often used in forensic settings to assess psychopathy, using a forty point scale. Using the PCL-R, one study suggested that 1-2% of the general US population score high enough to be considered potential psychopaths.

Robert Hare

     There is little evidence of a cure or effective treatment for psychopathy. No medications can instill empathy, and psychopaths who undergo traditional talk therapy often simply become more adept at manipulating others and more likely to commit crime.

     According to Dr. Hare, psychopathy stems from as yet unconfirmed 'genetic neurological predispositions and as yet unconfirmed social factors in upbringing'. Although the term 'psychopath' is not officially used in diagnostic manuals (DSM-IV), it is still used by many mental health professionals and by the general public as well as by the press and in fictional portrayals (ex Hannibal Lecter).

     Although psychopathy is associated with and in some cases is defined by conduct problems, criminality or violence, many psychopaths are not violent, and psychopaths are, despite the similar names, rarely psychotic.

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada

     Unfortunately, the label of 'psychopath' has both political and social implications. By definition, a psychopath is an individual who is likely beyond rehabilitation - today, an accusation which is 'politically incorrect'.

     In the United States,  high PCL-R scores have been used as an argument to support the death-penalty. In the UK, there is debate whether some individuals with personality disorders (such as psychopaths) should be detained even if they haven't committed a crime.

     The Hare Psychopathy Checklist, Revised (PCL-R) is a clinical rating scale consisting of 20 items. Each of the items in the PCL-R is scored on a three-point scale according to specific criteria through file information and an interview of the patient. A value of 0 is assigned if the item does not apply, 1 if it applies somewhat, and 2 if it fully applies.

   

Hannibal Lecter

     These scores are used to predict risk for criminal re-offence and probability of rehabilitation.

     There are similarities or 'cross-overs' with other psychiatric conditions, such as PCL-R Factors 1a and 1b being seen also in narcissistic personality disorder and histrionic personality disorder.

     PCL-R Factors 2a and 2b are strongly correlated to antisocial personality disorder as defined in the DSM-IV.

     The PCL-R was developed primarily as an assessment for convicted criminals. As with any 'interview' device, the quality of ratings may depend on how much background information is available, whether the person being rated is honest as well as the objectivity of the interviewer.

The Hare Psychopathy Checklist, Revised (PCL-R)

Factor 1: Personality 'Aggressive narcissism'

a. Glibness/superficial charm
b. Grandiose sense of self-worth
c. Pathological lying
d. Cunning/manipulative
e. Lack of remorse or guilt
f. Shallow affect (genuine emotion is short-lived and egocentric)
g. Callousness; lack of empathy
h. Failure to accept responsibility for own actions

Factor 2: Case history 'Socially deviant lifestyle'
a. Need for stimulation/proneness to boredom
b. Parasitic lifestyle
c. Poor behavioral control
d. Lack of realistic long-term goals
e. Impulsivity
f. Irresponsibility
g. Juvenile delinquency
h. Early behavior problems
i. Revocation of conditional release

Traits not correlated with either factor
a. Promiscuous sexual behavior
b.Many short-term marital relationships
c. Criminal versatility
d. Acquired behavioural sociopathy/sociological conditioning (Item 21(d): a newly identified trait i.e. a person relying on sociological strategies and tricks to deceive)

     The PCL-R is referred to by some as the 'gold standard' for assessing psychopathy. Thirty out of a maximum score of 40 is recommended as the cut-off for the label of psychopathy (Hare, 2003), although there is little or no scientific support for this as a particular break point.

     In research, a cut-off score of 25 is sometimes used. This threshold varies between jurisdictions as well -  the UK has used a cut-off of 25 rather than the 30 used in the US.

     Other studies attempt to describe 'psychopaths' according to their major characteristics, separating them into 4 groups (primary and secondary first described by Cleckley in 1941):

     Primary psychopaths do not respond to punishment, apprehension, stress, or disapproval. They are able to inhibit their antisocial impulses most of the time, not because of conscience, but 'because it suits their purpose at the time'. Words do not seem to have the same meaning for them as they do for the general population. At times, it seems they are unable to grasp the meaning of their own words ('semantic aphasia'). They don't follow any life plan and are incapable of experiencing any genuine emotion.

Unable to Resist Temptation?

     Secondary psychopaths are risk-takers but are also more likely to be stress-reactive, worriers, and guilt-prone. They expose themselves to more stress than the average person and are as vulnerable to stress as the average person. They are daring, adventurous, unconventional people who began playing by their own rules early in life. They are strongly driven by a desire to escape or avoid pain, but are unable to resist temptation. As their anxiety increases toward some forbidden object, so does their attraction to it. They live their lives by the lure of temptation.

     Both primary and secondary psychopaths can be subdivided into:
     Distempered psychopaths fly into a rage or frenzy more easily and more often than other subtypes. Their frenzy will resemble an epileptic fit.
     They are also usually men with incredibly strong sex drives, capable of astonishing feats of sexual energy, and seemingly obsessed by sexual urges during a large part of their waking lives. Powerful cravings also seem to be in their character, cravings such as drug addiction, kleptomania, pedophilia, any illicit or illegal indulgence. They like the endorphin 'high' of excitement and risk-taking (see post: Your Personal Narcotic).

     Charismatic Psychopaths are charming, attractive liars. They are usually gifted at some talent or another, and they use it to their advantage in manipulating others. They are fast-talkers and possess an almost demonic ability to persuade others out of everything they own, even their lives. Leaders of religious sects or cults (see post: The Reverend Jim Jones) might be psychopaths if they lead their followers to their deaths. This subtype often comes to believe in their own fictions and are irresistible.

     Popular misconceptions surrounding psychopathy persist (possibly due to the condition's depiction in the media):
1. All psychopaths are violent - not true.

Ted Bundy

     Psychopathy is a risk factor for future physical and sexual violence and at least some serial killers—Ted Bundy,John Wayne Gacy and Dennis Rader, the infamous “BTK” (Bind, Torture, Kill) murderer—have manifested numerous psychopathic traits, including superficial charm and a profound absence of guilt and empathy.

     Most psychopaths, however, are not violent, and most violent people are not psychopaths. In the days following the horrific Virginia Tech shootings of April 16, 2007, many newspaper commentators described the killer, Seung-Hui Cho, as 'psychopathic'. Yet Cho exhibited few traits of psychopathy. Those who knew him described him as markedly shy, withdrawn and peculiar.

Seung-Hui Cho

2. All psychopaths are psychotic - not true.

     In contrast to people with psychotic disorders, such as schizophrenia, who often lose contact with reality, Psychopaths are almost always rational in contrast to people with psychotic disorders (ex schizophrenia) who often lose contact with reality.

     The psychopath is well aware that his ill-advised or illegal actions are wrong in the eyes of society but shrug off these concerns. Some serial killers referred to by the media as psychopathic, such as Charles Manson (see post: Death Cults) and David Berkowitz, displayed striking features of psychosis rather than psychopathy.

Charles Manson

     For example, Manson claimed to be the reincarnation of Jesus Christ, and Berkowitz believed he was receiving commands from his neighbor Sam Carr’s dog (hence his adopted nickname 'Son of Sam').

3. Psychopathy is untreatable - not necessarily true.
     Psychopaths are often unmotivated to seek treatment but some studies suggest that psychopaths may benefit as much as non-psychopaths from psychological treatment. Even if the core personality traits of psychopaths are exceedingly difficult to change, their criminal behaviors may prove more amenable to treatment.

David Berkowitz

     Is there a difference between psychopathy and sociopathy? Are psychopaths and sociopaths two different disorders?

     Some literature says that these two conditions are similar yet somewhat different. Some studies place the prevalence of 'sociopathy' at 4% in our society. This compares with a prevalence for anorexic eating disorders of 3.43% (nearly epidemic); schizophrenia occurs in only about 1% of the population; the rate of colon cancer in the United States, considered 'alarmingly high' is about 40 per 100,000 - one hundred times lower than the rate of antisocial personality.

     The high incidence of sociopathy in western (and likely, every) modern society has a profound effect on the rest of us who must live with them or, at least, have them live among us. Most people, however, know nothing about this disorder and, if they do, they think only in terms of violent psychopathy - murderers, serial killers, mass murderers - people who are conspicuous, who break the law and who, if caught, will be imprisoned, perhaps even executed by our legal system.

   
     The following, according to one article, is a comparison of the characteristics of the psychopath and the sociopath.
                                                    Psychopath                                                  Sociopath

Social relationships            unable to maintain normal relationships         appear normal in relationships Tendency to violence                          yes                                                             yes
Behaviour                                        erratic                                                       controlled
Suffers from                        antisocial personality disorder                         antisocial personality disorder
Criminal behaviour             erratic-leave clues and evidence                          well-planned-clues rarely left 

ASPD?

     Psychopaths often live at the fringes of society, are often extremely disorganized and are unable to maintain normal relationships with family, friends or co-workers. 

     Sociopaths, in contrast, can be obsessively organized and normal in their social relationships and caring towards their parents. A sociopath would likely live an outwardly normal life in a regular neighborhood and appear to blend in well with society.

     Psychopaths are often unable to hold down a steady job and house whereas sociopaths often have very successful careers and try to make others like and trust them.

     The sociopath is able to understand human emotions quite well but is unable to experience them. This allows the sociopath to be master manipulators of human emotions.

     Violence by a psychopath is erratic and unplanned and after the erratic act, psychopaths  generally leave behind a large trail of clues. On the other hand, sociopaths may take years to plan acts of violence and revenge, making it difficult to catch them. Each step in the violent act of the sociopath is carefully planned, their crime often undetected.

     Psychiatrists often don't distinguish between psychopaths and sociopaths but rather label a person with antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) with, perhaps the subclassification of 'sociopath' (if their mental condition is a result of mainly social conditions such as abuse during childhood) and 'psychopath' (if the condition is mainly congenital).

     If there are true differences between these two 'conditions' then there certainly are similarities as well.

      According to some therapists, both sociopaths and psychopaths face medical disorders that can be treated or alleviated if properly diagnosed, the treatment involving both psychotherapy as well as proper medication.
     In both situations, signs of the disorder begin to establish and surface at around fifteen years of age. The presenting symptom may be excessive cruelty to animals followed by lack of conscience, remorse or guilt for hurtful actions to others later on stage.

Animal Cruelty

     There may be an intellectual understanding of appropriate social behaviour but no emotional response to the actions of others.

     Psychopaths (perhaps the more severe form of the same disorder?) may also face an inability to form genuine relationships, and may show inappropriate or out of proportion reaction to perceived negligence.

     But why do these people exist? Is their behaviour an illness/a disease? Can this type of murderously depraved behaviour be biologically based?

     There is evidence that problems in brain structure and chemistry do play a part. Most experts agree that there is no neurological 'litmus test' for psychopathy. At King’s College London, scientists claim to have found the strongest evidence yet that psychopaths have abnormalities in key areas of their 'social brains'. The researchers looked at MRI brain scans of 44 male violent offenders (murderers and rapists), 17 fitting the diagnosis for psychopathy.

King's College, London

     The prisoners with psychopathic traits had significantly smaller amounts of grey matter in regions associated with processing 'empathy, moral reasoning and 'self-conscious' emotions, such as guilt and embarrassment'. Other studies have implicated abnormalities in the amygdala (the area associated with aggression), lesions in the orbitofrontal cortex as well as in the white matter connecting the two brain regions.

     Genetics may also play a role. One gene in particular has been implicated (MAO- A), which produces an enzyme that breaks down serotonin, a neurotransmitter which affects mood and can have a calming effect.

The Amygdala-Associated With Aggression

     Named the 'warrior gene', it has been theorized that the calming effects of serotonin may not always be effective in people born with a variant of this gene. Some researchers postulate that the brains of psychopaths may be wired for rewards.

     Brain scans show that people with high levels of 'impulsive antisociality' show greater activity in parts of the brain related to anticipating and expecting rewards. If those rewards don’t come nearly as frequently as expected, the psychopath becomes more aggressive, more frustrated and more alienated toward the world.

     Other studies suggest psychopaths’ brains have an enhanced ability to sense certain emotions — in particular, fear. They seem better able to pick up cues of vulnerability or weakness, making them, in a sense, a natural-born predator.

A Man With the 'Warrior Gene'?

     Certainly in modern times (and probably throughout human history), psychopaths/sociopaths have been tormenting our societies.

     During the Second World War, German Nazi and Japanese military physicians carried out cruel 'experiments and research' on prisoners, documenting their findings in scientific fashion for the purpose of 'discovery' and 'curiosity'.

     At Auschwitz, under the direction of Dr. Eduard Wirths, selected inmates were subjected to various experiments which were supposedly designed to help German military personnel in combat situations, to aid in the recovery of military personnel that had been injured, and to advance the racial ideology backed by the Third Reich.

Auschwitz

     Unit 731 was a biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that undertook lethal human experimentation during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) followed by World War II. This 'medical' unit was responsible for some of the most notorious war crimes carried out by Japanese personnel.

     The atrocities committed by the commander Shiro Ishii (see post: Death by Physician) and others under his command in Unit 731 included alive and awake dissection of prisoners (including pregnant women, impregnated by the doctors themselves) and amputation then reattachment of limbs to other parts of the victim's body.

Nazi 'Experiments'

     Some prisoners had parts of their bodies frozen and thawed to study the resulting untreated gangrene. Some victims were used as living test cases for grenades and flame throwers. Others were injected with strains of diseases (disguised as 'vaccinations') to study their effects.
     Male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea through rape, then 'study' of their disease carried out.

Unit 731 'Experiments'

     More recent, in 2011 and 2012, are the cases of Canadian Luka Magnotta and Norwegian Anders Breivik.

     Nicknamed the one newspaper as the cannibal killer, Luka Magnotta (not his real name but rather one of several aliases) was said to have been inspired by a Jack the Ripper-style slaughter video game starring Christopher Walken.  

     Walken played a cop named Vince Magnotta in the 1996 game Ripper. Luka, a 29 year old gay porn 'star', adopted the same surname when he changed his name from Eric Newman in 2006. 

Luka Magnotta

     The game starts with emails sent to a newspaper from a serial killer addicted to butchering his victims. Luka Magnotta allegedly murdered his Chinese boyfriend, Jun Lin, with an ice pick in his Montreal apartment then dismembered the body, mailing one foot and one hand to two federal Canadian political parties and the other foot and hand to two private schools in Vancouver. The torso of his victim was discovered in a dumpster near his apartment.

On July 1, 2012, Canada Day (the country's national holiday), a severed head was discovered in a Montreal urban park.

     Magnotta fled Canada and, after an international alert, was arrested in Berlin and returned to Canada.   A few years back, Magnotta posted a video on You-Tube of footage of him carrying out strangulation and suffocation of several kittens.

     Magnotta is awaiting psychiatric assessment and trial but has already submitted a plea of not guilty on murder charges.

Ripper Video Game

     Another modern-day (possible) psychopath is the anti-Islam militant Anders Behring Breivik arrested in Norway for the killing of 77 people on July 22, 2011. 

     Breivik had admitted (with pride) to the bombing of the government’s headquarters in Oslo in  July, killing eight people, before gunning down 69 and injuring a further 242 (all victims mostly teenagers), at a summer camp of the ruling Labour Party.

     He however, denied criminal guilt and subjected the country to a trial during which the court had to rule on both his guilt, and his sanity. Breivik attempted to use the trial as a microphone for his ideology, keeping Europe 'white' and free from Islam.

     The question of guilt was not an issue as he admitted to the murders but it was Breivik's sanity which had been, from the outset, the central question the court was obliged to answer. A number of forensic and prison psychiatrists had told the court that they believed that  Breivik was not psychotic and therefore accountable for his actions.

Anders Behring Breivik

     However two people (the authors of the first psychiatric assessment) disagreed, stating that the man was psychotic at the time of his crimes and that he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia.

     Prosecutor Svein Holden stated that, given there were still doubts about his insanity, Breivik should be placed in psychiatric care and not sent to prison. Breivik himself called psychiatric care 'a fate worse than death'. If convicted of murder as a sane individual, Breivik would face a maximum prison sentence of 21 years under Norwegian law. Commitment to psychiatric care would mean Breivik could be confined for a long time, perhaps for the rest of his life. The legal system in Norway is scheduled to make a decision in July or August 2012.

     These are all cases of murderous individuals in modern times.

     But were the Nazi doctors in the German concentration camps and the Japanese doctors of Unit 731 true psychopaths? Or were these men simply being led along by 'group think' or 'crowd psychology' (see post: The Demagogues-How Do They Do It?). Would they have behaved in a similar way if there had been no war?

     Luka Magnotta certainly seems to fit the criteria for a psychopath. His psychiatric assessment is pending as of June 2012.

Breivik's Fascist Salute at the Start of Court

     Anders Breivik had a well thought out plan but allowed himself to be easily caught. At this point in time, there does not seem to be full agreement as to whether this man is sane or not, whether he is a true psychopath or really psychotic.

     Finally, is there really a difference between a psychopath and a sociopath? Perhaps one is only a more extreme form of the other.

     And are these two disorders (psychopathy and sociopathy) really different presentations of 'antisocial personality disorder' as defined in the DSM-IV?

     More precise definitions may possibly be helpful in treatment for the more extreme cases or may even signal that any attempt at treatment or rehabilitation would be futile.

     But for the population threatened by these individuals, for the victims of their crimes, definition is, more often irrelevant.

   
     For an interesting discussion on the absence of empathy ( a hallmark of the psychopath), click on the link below.  

     Zero Degrees of Empathy  

   
     *Psychopathy and sociopathy: subjects of research for the novel Whip the Dogs - Amazon Kindle;
The Tao of the Thirteenth God - Amazon Kindle.

The Cult of Personality

     Dictators have a need to be respected, to be loved, to be adored. The great difficulty most of these dictators encounter however has been that many people do not like them, do not support them and disagree with what they want to do and what they represent. So, what is a dictator to do? If he is to survive, if he is to carry out his policies, he must re-create himself, paint himself into the picture, create his own cult of personality.

     Studies suggest that there are common characteristics seen in many non-democratic leaders. Death cults, whether the 'quirky' such as the Manson Family (see post: Death Cults) or the religious ((see post: The Reverend Jim Jones) are invariably led by demagogues who impose their personalities on their followers. These leaders and many dictators display the many of the signs of six types of 'personality disorders'.

     Totalitarian leaders such as Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union, Muammar Gaddafi of Libya, Adolf Hitler of Germany, Mao Ze Dong of China, Saddam Hussein of Iraq, Juan Peron of Argentina, Kim Jong Il of North Korea (and there are many more) all have some or all of the characteristics of the following 'disorders'.

     Schizotypal personality disorder is a personality disorder where the person experiences as need for social isolation, has an odd manner of thinking or behaviour, anxiety in social situations and often has unconventional beliefs. People with this disorder are often unable to maintain close relationships.

Muammar Gaddafi

     These people are often superstitious and often interpret events as 'meaningful' for themselves.They frequently misinterpret situations as being strange or having unusual meaning for them. Paranormal and superstitious beliefs are not uncommon for these people. Anxiety and depression are a common problem.

     Schizoid personality disorder (SPD) is characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency towards a solitary lifestyle, secretiveness and emotional coldness.

      Narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) is a disorder where the individual is excessively preoccupied with issues of personal adequacy, power and prestige. These individuals are seen as egocentric and often as megalomaniacs ( an inflated sense of self-esteem).

A Narcissist

     Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) is characterized by disregard for, and violation of the rights of others. This usually begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood.

      Paranoid personality disorder is a disorder characterized by paranoia and usually involves beliefs of persecution or beliefs of conspiracy towards the individual and/or his group. There is a general mistrust of those outside of the 'inner circle' or 'tribe'. People with this particular disorder may or have a tendency to bear grudges, suspiciousness, tendency to interpret others actions as hostile, persistent tendency to self-reference, or a tenacious sense of personal right.

Paranoid Behaviour (Vincent van Gogh)

     Sadistic personality disorder is a disorder no longer recognized as a distinct entity by the American Psychiatric Association. But the characteristic of sadism can be said to be a common behavioral disorder characterized by a callous, vicious, manipulative, and degrading behavior expressed towards other people.

Sadism

     Before the development of modern media and communications, emperors, monarchs and ruthless generals used religion as the spring-board to seize and maintain power. In medieval Europe, the dictator could cite the 'divine right of kings' (see post: The Monarchy of North Korea), in Imperial China, the 'mandate of heaven'.

The Coronation of Charlemagne

     The ruler could allow himself to be crowned by religious leaders (Charlemagne, the first 'Holy' Roman Emperor) and even declare himself a 'god-king' (the Imperial cult of ancient Rome).

     Today, cult development depends not just on display and rumour but relies heavily on propaganda and the media, tilted in favour of the cult personality. Throughout history, there have been cults built up around individual leaders using word of mouth, persuasion, coercion and brute force but since the age of modern media (radio, television, rapid transit for mass rallies) there has been a proliferation of personality figures who have emerged.

   
     Human beings, it has been said, are 'programmed to worship', whether it be worship of a god, worship of a teen-age pop star, worship of an ideology or worship of an individual. The personality cult takes advantage of this human predisposition. It is a system in which a leader is able to control a group of people through the sheer force of his or her personality/charisma, where the person is seen as god-like figure and where criticism of that person is generally prohibited depends today so much on the unending bombardment of the masses by state-sponsored media to ensure that the people are given a consistent picture of the leader's 'perfection'. The aim of the personality cult is usually to enact radical change within society.

     The individual leader's image becomes associated with this new set of values or goals that are perceived by the public to be beneficial to the nation's well-being, even when these 'values' or goals have a negative effect on everyday life. Personality cults are maintained through glorification of the leaders often to that god-like status.

The Imperial Cult of Rome

     As far back as ancient Greece, leaders and monarchs developed the theory that the ruler 'embodied the law'. High profile and showy ceremonies honouring the leaders contributions and achievements, statues and paintings of the leader commemorating events and 'benevolent' acts as well as the omnipresent face on the coin, the daily reminder of the man in charge - these are all means used in the past and in the present day for a personality cult to thrive.

     Many political leaders stand out in history as creators of personality cults. Joseph Stalin is perhaps one of the best examples of a leader who set out with the precise intention of creating a cult in his own name. Joseph Stalin (1879-1953) took on the name 'Stalin' ('Man of Steel'), changing his name from the Georgian Dzugashvili at the age of 34. He was the son of a shoemaker and, as a young man, studied for the priesthood but was expelled from the theological school for insubordination.

Joseph Stalin

     In Stalin's early years he was continually in trouble with the local authorities. Stalin accepted grandiose titles such as 'Father of Nations', 'Brilliant Genius of Humanity', 'Great Architect of Communism', 'Gardener of Human Happiness') and rewrote Soviet history, giving himself a more significant role in the revolution of 1917. He insisted that he be remembered as one with 'the extraordinary modesty characteristic of truly great people'.

     Towns, villages and cities were renamed after the Soviet leader and the 'Stalin Prize' and the 'Stalin Peace Prize' were named in his honor. Statues of Stalin depict him at a height and build greater than his true physique with photographic evidence suggesting that he was between 5 ft 5 in and 5 ft 6 in (165–168 cm). 

     Stalin had his name included in the new Soviet National Anthem and he was the focus of literature, poetry, music, paintings and film that exhibited fawning devotion. At times, Stalin was credited with almost god-like qualities, including the suggestion that he single-handedly won the Second World War.

Massive Starvation in the Ukraine-1933

     Once firmly in power, Stalin carried out purges, killing off potential rivals. Terror was used to keep the population 'in line'. Historians estimate that nearly 700,000 people (353,074 in 1937 and 328,612 in 1938) were executed over this two-year period with the majority of victims ordinary Soviet citizens - workers, teachers, priests, soldiers, pensioners and beggars. Shortly before, during and immediately after World War II, Stalin ordered deportations altering the ethnic map of the Soviet Union.
     Between 1941 and 1949 nearly 3.3 million were deported to Siberia and the Central Asian republics. Almost half of the resettled population died of malnutrition and disease. 'State-organized' famine has been alleged, ordered by Stalin (Holodomor famine) to eliminate Ukrainian nationalism in 1932–1933 when between 2.2 million and 5 million died of starvation. Ethnic Poles and Germans were also targeted and eliminated.

     Even today, nearly 60 years since he died, many elderly men and women reject or rationalize any and all evidence of Stalin’s 'errors' and hang on to their belief in Stalin’s godlike powers. 

Statue of Stalin-Larger than Life

     Some people claim that they used to believe in Stalin but lost their faith gradually, like groupies who eventually outgrow their youthful infatuation with a band. And there is evidence that significant numbers of Russians remain 'proud' in some sense of Stalin, though this 'pride' in Stalin appears to have much less to do with Stalin’s actual cult of personality than with Stalin’s supposed achievements as a leader.

     Perhaps it was in the years that he spent in the priesthood that Stalin learned something about 'following without questioning'. Trouble with authority was evident in his youth and, once he sensed that power was at hand, Stalin immersed himself into the cult of personality.

     Was Stalin narcissistic? He did change his name to the 'Man of Steel' and stuck it on town and cities. He built  larger than life images of himself and spread them throughout the country.

Katyn Massacre-Thousands of 
Polish Soldiers Murdered

      Was Stalin paranoid? Did he have 'anti-social' characteristics? He was always 'looking over his shoulder' and eliminated rivals with a fury.

     But, like every demagogue who wants the world to forget his dark side, Stalin built monuments, bridges, forced modernization and populated the far reaches of the Soviet Empire. Even today, some people still have fond dreams of the long-lost days of Stalinism.

   
     *Personality cults: subject of research for the novel The Tao of the Thirteenth God - Amazon Kindle.

The Shaman

     The shaman is different from the priest. Or are these two 'roles' in  humanity really that different one from the other? In some areas of the world (Sweden, Finland, Russia, Hungary, Central Asia, Mongolia) shamans have indeed been referred to as priests.

A Shaman

     The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) defines a shaman as a person who has access and influence in the world of spirits (good and evil). Typically, a shaman is able to contact spirits, helpers that can guide him/her on voyages of ecstasy into other worlds. This may be done as a regular event in the career of the shaman or the shaman may perform these 'miracles' on behalf of a person(s) who has sought out his help.

     But how is this contact with spirits by the shaman any different from exorcism of spirits by a Catholic priest, Jewish Rabbi, Hindu holy man or a Muslim cleric? Is it much different than the priest who prays to a particular saint on your behalf?

     Is that priest performing shamanic work? Or is the shaman performing duties now mostly taken over by the 'modern' priest?

Yukaghir Shaman

     The shaman can access this 'spirit' world through chanting, trance or ritual, and is able to practice healing and divination. The Roman Catholic Church is renowned for its own ritual. Many Judeo-Christian, Islamic and Buddhist practices involve chanting and, in effect, bring the chanter into an 'altered state of consciousness' (see post: Altered States of Consciousness). Some followers are even able to enter trance-like states, experiencing 'ecstatic religious experiences' hypnotized by the ritual of the liturgy. Are these Catholic priests, Jewish rabbis and Muslim imams all really shamans?
   
     St. Teresa of Avila saw visions. Many writers of the Bible told prophecy (Daniel, Ezekiel). Were these saints and prophets shamans?

     The Mayan priesthood is thought to have evolved from pre-existing shamanic practices. Have our own 'modern' beliefs' also evolved from what we today call 'shamanism'?

St. Teresa of Avila

     Perhaps one aspect that discerns a shaman from a priest is that in many cultures, the shaman will use drugs to induce hallucinations, to travel to the spirit world and return with answers. The Urarina of the Amazon use ayahuasca to contact the spirits. In the Native American Church (yes, church), the psychedelic, peyote is used by the congregation to induce trances. Rastafarians and other groups use cannabis as a sacred drug in their services (see post: Drugs Used in Religion-The New World).

   
     The shaman is said to be the oldest profession in the world (Yes, contrary to popular myth, even older than prostitution). The shaman is religious practitioner, keeper of medical knowledge (drug use), leader in the community, magician. The earliest depiction of a shaman (priest?) has been found on the wall of a cave in the south of France and dates from the stone-age (The Dancing Sorcerer). Shamans and priests do indeed go back a very long way.

Yupik Shaman

     Perhaps there really is a difference between shamanism and 'modern' religion. Generally, today's religions are not dependent on drug use as part of their 'experience' and the leaders of these 'modern' religions do not depend on drugs to 'touch the divine'. But, what about the priest, the modern day religious leader who does use some sort of 'enhancing compound', some kind of drug? What about this individual some would call the 'High' priest?

   
     *The evolution of religion: subject of research for the novel  The Tao of the   Thirteenth God - Amazon Kindle.

The Superstitions of Religion

     What is the relationship between religion and superstition? The religious may argue that the two are fundamentally different types of beliefs. The non-religious, however, often notice fundamental similarities between the two. Even the very label 'superstition' implies a lack of rationality, a certain childishness or primitive way of thinking. Religious believers will often make efforts to have their own particular beliefs stand apart from what they themselves would call superstition.

A Very Bad Sign for the Superstitious

     There are important psychological benefits often used to explain the reason why religion exists and persists (see post: Do We Really Need Religion?). These are also the same reasons for the existence and persistence of superstition. Both religion and superstition spring from some of the same basic human needs and desires: a need for certainty, for security, some reassurance that you will not be overcome by the evils of the world.

     The similarities between religious and superstitious beliefs are not just on the surface but run deep and often intertwine. Both are non-materialistic in nature. They do not look at the world as a place controlled by cause and effect but rather explain the vicissitudes of existence by the presence of immaterial forces (God or gods; angels or demons - see post: Devils and Demons) which influence or control the course of life.

So Many Religious Beliefs

     As human beings, we crave meaning in our lives. We are unable to easily accept that events may be random or chaotic. If a friend gets struck by a car, was it because a black cat crossed his path? Or was it because he did not go to church last Sunday? Does he not pay respect to his ancestors?

     Some have explained the difference between religion and superstition this way:  'A religion is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a supernatural agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs. Superstition, on the other hand, is a 'credulous belief or notion, NOT based on reason, knowledge, or experience. It is also commonly applied to beliefs and practices surrounding luck, prophecy and spiritual beings, particularly the irrational belief that future events can be influenced or foretold by specific unrelated prior events.

Angel from the Song of Bethlehem

     This is perhaps, not a very good defence of 'religious' belief as opposed to 'superstitious' belief. The Hebrew Bible (the Old Testament) contains many books focused on prophecy. In both the Old and New Testaments as well as the Muslim Koran, spiritual beings (angels, devils, demons) play important roles. The weakness of these 'definitions' is bared forth by asking straight-forward questions such as: Jesus changing water into wine or Mohammed flying to heaven on Al-Burāq, the  'mythological' winged horse...Is it reasonable to believe that either of these two 'events' are true?

     The definition of 'superstition' has changed with the times and changes depending upon whom you ask. Generally, superstition is a belief in 'supernatural causality', the belief that one event leads to the cause of another without any process in the physical world linking the two events. Such as God striking you down because you 'sinned'?

Al-Burāq

     Opposition to superstition was a concern of the intellectuals during the 18th century when philosophers ridiculed any belief in miracles, revelation or 'magic' and typically included as well much of Christian doctrine.

     During the time of the Roman Empire, superstition simply meant a fear of the gods.

     Martin Luther, one of the first of the 'Protestants' called the papacy and the Roman Church 'that fountain and source of all superstitions'.

Martin Luther

     Today, according to the Roman Catholic Church, 'superstition is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes'.

     It seems that the term superstition contrasts with the term religion, simply by focusing on what is seen (by the religion in question) as excessive or false religious behavior as opposed to a standard of proper or accepted religious activity.

     Are you afraid to walk under a ladder? If you do, do you cross yourself or say 12 'hail Marys'? The following are examples of (what most would call) 'superstitions':

     Triskaidekaphobia, fear of the number '13' is a specifically recognized phobia (a word which was coined in 1911). Sufferers of triskaidekaphobia try to avoid 'bad luck' by keeping away from anything numbered or labelled 'thirteen'.

     The number 'four' (四,  sì) in Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese and Korean cultures: Because the number '4' sounds like the word 'death', '4' is considered an 'unlucky' number (see post: Fun With Numbers).

The Goddess Fortuna

     This all leads to the concept of 'Luck' which can be good luck or bad luck but whether good or bad, 'luck' occurs beyond one's control, without regard to one's will, intention or the desired result.  In the prescriptive sense, luck is the supernatural concept that there are forces (e.g. gods or spirits) which determine whether certain events occur in the same way that the laws of physics will prescribe that certain events occur. Cultural views of luck vary, some regarding 'luck' as random chance whereas in ancient Rome, 'luck' was embodied as the goddess Fortuna.

     Finding a 'four-leaf clover', a rarity among clovers, is considered a sign of 'good fortune' to come.

     Numerology is a modern day practice that is based on converting virtually anything material into a number, using that number in an attempt to detect something meaningful about reality, and trying to predict or calculate the future based on 'lucky' numbers (see post: Gematria Fun With Numbers Again).

A Four-Leaf Clover

     In some European countries,  spilling salt is a sign of evil things to come. One explanation of this belief  is that Judas Iscariot spilled the salt at the Last Supper but salt was a valuable commodity in medieval times and a symbol of trust and friendship. There is an old German saying: 'Whoever spills salt arouses enmity'.

     There is an old concept in folklore (superstition?) the seventh son of a seventh son possesses special powers. The seventh son must come from an unbroken line with no female children born between, and be, in turn, born to such a seventh son. This number '7' (see post: Fun With Numbers) has a long history of mystical as well as religious associations: the seven days of creation, the seven hills of Rome, the Seven Sages (see post: Seven Sages and Four Horsemen). In some cultures, the seventh son of a seventh son is believed to have a direct link to Satan and because of this, possesses 'special abilities'.

Judas Spilling the Salt at the Last Supper (Da Vinci)

     A curse (or execration) is an expressed wish that some form of misfortune will occur to someone or to something. The 'curse' may be inflicted through 'casting a spell', magic, 'witchcraft', act of God or by a prayer. It is at this point that the defining lines between superstition and religion start to blur for many religious and non-religious people alike. Often, the curse itself (or accompanying ritual) is considered to have some causative force in the result. There is a broad popular belief in curses being associated with the violation of the tombs of mummified corpses of ancient Egypt.

Egyptian Hieroglyphic Curse Inscription

     So, is this where the line of demarcation between superstition and religion is? The following are examples of (what most would call) 'religious practices' but, depending on your religion, some may disagree:

     Satī was (and still is) a religious funeral practice among some communities in India where a recently widowed woman commits suicide by throwing herself onto her husband’s funeral pyre.

     Prayer is an act that seeks to activate a relationship with a deity or object of worship through deliberate communication. Prayer may involve the use of words or song or simply words from the praying person. Several scientific studies regarding prayer and its effect on the healing of sick or injured people have been carried out, mostly with equivocal results.

     The most common form of prayer is to directly appeal to God to grant one's requests. God supposedly listens to the prayer, and may or may not choose to answer in the way one asks of him.

Sati Ceremony

    A 'rite' is a formal 'ritual', often performed under specific circumstances for specific reasons. In Roman Catholicism, for example, 'rite' often refers to the sacrament (ceremony), such as the sacrament of Anointing of the Sick.

Military Chaplain-Anointing of the Sick

     The Qiblah is the direction that should be faced when a Muslim prays. 

     It is fixed as the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca. Most mosques contain a niche in the wall (called the mihrab), that indicates the correct direction in which to pray (the Qiblah). 

     The Qiblah's importance also plays a part in various ceremonies. For instance, the head of an animal that is slaughtered using Halal (religiously sanctioned) methods is aligned with the Qiblah. After death, Muslims are buried with their heads in the direction of the Qiblah.

     The Kaaba is a cube-shaped building in Mecca and is the most sacred site in Islam. The Kaaba was said to have been constructed by Abraham and his son Ishmael, after settling in Arabia.

   

The Kabaa, Mecca

     The Black Stone is the eastern cornerstone of the Kaaba. The stone was venerated at the Kaaba in pre-Islamic pagan times and now is revered by Muslims as an Islamic relic. It was set intact into the Kaaba's wall by Muhammad in 605 A.D. Since then it has been broken into a number of fragments and is now cemented into a silver frame in the side of the Kaaba.
     The stone is a fragmented dark rock, polished smooth by the hands of millions of pilgrims. Islamic tradition states  that it fell from Heaven to show Adam and Eve where to build an altar and has often been described as a meteorite.

Exorcism

     The sign of the cross  or crossing oneself, is a ritual hand motion made by members of many branches of Christianity. The motion is the tracing of the shape of a cross in the air or on one's own body, echoing the traditional shape of the cross upon which Christ was crucified. There are two principal forms: the older—three fingers, right to left—is exclusively used in the Eastern Orthodox Churches; the other—left to right, other than three fingers—is the one used in the Latin-Rite (Roman Catholic, Anglican, Lutheran).

     Exorcism is the religious practice of evicting demons (see post: Devils and Demons) or other spiritual entities from a person or place which they are believed to have 'possessed' (see post: Execution by Crucifixion). Depending on the spiritual beliefs of the exorcist, this may be done by performing an elaborate ritual, or simply by commanding it to depart in the name of a higher power. The practice is ancient and part of the belief system of many cultures and religions.

      All this brings us back to the same question(s) once again: Jesus changing water into wine or Mohammed flying to heaven on Al-Burāq, the  'mythological' winged horse...Is it reasonable to believe that either of these two 'events' are true?

     Today, many would say that both of these tales are merely metaphors, storied descriptions of the influence these two men of history had on the world. But, when these stories were first told and even only a few hundred years ago, these tales were taken as real, as 'gospel' truth. Does that mean that Christianity and Islam were superstitions at that time and only now are true religions?

Christ Walking on Water

     And what will be said about today's beliefs in another two or three hundred years? Will the religious of the future claim that today's stories of popes and ayatollahs, of missionaries and dedicated nuns are really just metaphors too?

     Will they also say that the beliefs that many follow today are 'superstition' which eventually (some time in today's future) became true religion?

   
     *Superstition and religion: subjects of research for the novel  The Tao of the Thirteenth God - Amazon Kindle.